LD OnLine: Writing Made Easier

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Writing Made Easier

Regina G. Richards

March 1999

The process of written expression places the most demands on a student's ability

to perform multiple subtests simultaneously. Generally, the writing process can

be divided into two very global areas of mechanics and content. The more

efficiently and automatically the student uses basic writing mechanics

(capitalization, punctuation, spelling, letter form, sentence structure), the

easier it will be to focus on the content, or the expression and organization of

ideas. This article is designed to discuss only one small component of writing

mechanics, describing a method which can be used by a parent with a single child

or a teacher with a group.

The more automatically a person is able to put words on paper, the easier it is

to focus on ideas. The spelling does not need to be perfectly accurate, but it

does need to be close enough to correct for the student to read what he or she

has written. The three main aspects needed to spell accurately are:

Sounds

phonological awareness

sound/symbol correspondence

phonetic analysis skills

Visual recall

visual eidetics (automatic visual recognition of word parts and whole

words)

recall of tricky parts

knowledge of unusual patterns

Rules

knowledge of spelling rules, including syllabification, accenting, flexing,

and the variety of vowel sounds

These three categories are listed developmentally, hence, the first area of

focus begins with an ability to understand sounds and move into sound/symbol

correspondence. Good sound/symbol correspondence also depends upon an ability to

create and form letters automatically and efficiently without having to think

about each line as a separate unit. This article focuses on the development of

sound/symbol correspondence, a critical and essential prerequisite within the

process of writing.

Efficient and automatic sound/symbol correspondence leads to accurate phonetic

analysis and is a vital aspect of the process of learning to read. It depends

upon appropriate phonological awareness development and is a critical part of an

appropriately balanced approach, supported in many state frameworks. While

phonics should not be the sole focus of teaching or result in an overemphasis on

the development of skills in isolation, the critical value of phonics cannot be

overlooked or left to implicit learning. This is true for all students, most

especially the dyslexic and/or dysgraphic learner.

To become skillful readers or writers, children need to learn how to decode

words instantly and effortlessly. Automaticity is a major goal. Initially,

students must examine the letters and letter patterns of every new word while

reading, but as they progress, the process needs to become more automatic.

The most effective phonics instruction is explicit and systematic (Reading

Program Advisory 1996, 6). In explicit phonics the key points and principles are

clarified precisely for students. Another important aspect of effective phonics

instruction is that it is systematic phonics: it gradually builds from basic

elements to more subtle and complex patterns. The purpose is to convey the logic

of the system and to invite its extension to new words that children will

encounter on their own. The end goal is independence in reading and writing new

and unusual words.

These needs were first substantiated by Samuel T. Orton, M.D., and Anna

Gillingham, a psychologist, in their initial work on dyslexia in the early

1920's, and subsequently in Gillingham's reading program (Gillingham 1968).

Teaching phonics opportunistically by pointing out sound/symbol connections only

as they arise does not have the same impact on learning. While there are some

students who will learn to read no matter what is done in the classroom, the

dyslexic student or the student with other reading-based learning differences

will not learn to read by teaching phonics opportunistically. This concept is

critical for teachers to understand, as it can make the difference between a

dyslexic student learning or struggling to read.

Figure 1 - Orton & Gillingham: initial pioneers in teaching reading to

dyslexics

Samuel Torrey Orton, the physician who was responsible for the

recognition of dyslexia as a specific learning disability in the U.S.,

was first to consider that the disorder might have a neural substrate.

Dr. Orton stressed prognostic optimism as early as 1925.

In the 1930s, Dr. Orton worked with Anna Gillingham, a psychologist,

and Bessie Stillman, a master teacher, to develop the Orton/Gillingham

Approach.

The Gillingham Manuals made available a systematic presentation of the

structure of the English language. It described methodical procedures

for teaching by the simultaneous use of the sense of sight, hearing,

and muscular awareness. It was also adaptable in pace and detail to

the individual needs and interests of the child, and to the ingenuity

of the teacher who could use it as a base of operations to which other

material could be added. It was an approach, not a method or a system

(Rawson 1995, 63).

Building on their foundation of phonological awareness, students must understand

how the alphabetical principle works, and they need to understand the concept

and use of a code system. After this understanding is entrenched, it is

relatively easy for the students to add new sound/symbol pairs to their working

knowledge set. This is especially true for dyslexics and is the rationale for

the systematic approach as initially represented by Gillingham. Beginning

phonics instruction is best conducted with a relatively small set of consonants

and short vowels, developing sound/symbol relationships progressively. By using

a limited set of letters to build as many familiar words as possible, students

become more aware of the code system and learn to use phonics to read and spell

logically, an important step towards automaticity.

It has been found very useful with both dyslexic and dysgraphic students to

teach sound/symbol correspondence concretely and precisely. This method also

works for other learners, but it is essential for learners with special needs.

The following system differs from other systems in that it utilizes a

multisensory presentation combined with visual mnemonics. There is a match

between auditory, visual, and kinesthetic processing when dealing with sounds

and matching them to written letters. Visual pictures are also included, pulling

in another whole system: visual imagery. This provides the students with hooks

or links to remember a key word for each sound. In addition, the use of phrases,

many of which are silly, brings in a contextual hook to help students hang the

words together, thus providing another system to aid retrieval of the

information. This system has been called Memory Foundations for Reading (MFR)

because of its importance in the foundational system for reading and because of

its assistance in retrieval memory. The sequence presented in MFR follows the

sequence presented in the Gillingham program. There is no magical reason for

this sequence, and the sequence may be varied to coordinate with any reading

program. What is important is to separate presentation of letters that are

similar in visual configurations (such as b and d) and sounds that are similar

and difficult to discriminate (such as short e and short i). One sound in the

pair should be taught and developed to a level of automaticity before the second

sound is introduced. Once the second sound is introduced, substantial

discrimination practice needs to be included.

Value of Key Words in Developing Automatic Sound/Symbol Associations

Many students learn to form associations between sounds and symbols merely

through exposure, drill and practice. Dyslexic students and others who struggle

with the reading process benefit substantially by receiving direct instruction

and substantial practice to help them form automatic associations between

visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modes. This enables them to make specific

links and connections between information that is auditory (what they hear),

visual (what they see), and kinesthetic (what they say and write). The

Gillingham program refers to these multisensory links as the language triangle

(see Figure 2).

Figure 2 - The language triangle

The basic principle of the language triangle is to build letter sounds

into words, like bricks built into a wall. The technique is based upon

close association of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic elements

(Gillingham 1968, 40).

Presenting separate and isolated key words for each sound/symbol association is

effective, but it is also laborious and tedious. In contrast, presenting key

words in an organized approach is effective and efficient and allows students to

use a variety of modalities and connections in the learning process.

In MFR, the key word for each sound/symbol relationship is represented by a

pictured object. Thus, when reading or spelling, the student can refer to the

association to trigger the needed sound. When these associations are made

consistently, retrieval is much more automatic. Presenting the key words within

a mnemonic sentence provides the memory tool within a contextual hook or

connection. The visual images linked to each phrase enhance retrieval and

accelerate the learning. When the pictures are colored, additional visual input

is provided. By coloring the pictures themselves, students reinforce the

connections kinesthetically while learning the associated phrases. The program,

Memory Foundations for Reading: Visual Mnemonics for Sound/Symbol Relationships,

presents each of the pictures in 81/2 x 11 line drawing format to encourage

students to color the pictures (Richards 1997).

Mnemonic strategies are critical for dyslexic learners. A mnemonic is a memory

trick, a strategy or plan which provides a hook to hang on to and later retrieve

a memory. Key words can be explained to the students as very important helper

words: they are like keysto help us learn and remember what sound goes with each

letter.

The MFR system of picture mnemonics provides a multidimensional organizational

system divided into three sets.

Set one involves the main sound for each alphabet letter

Set two provides letters with multiple sounds

Set three provides sounds with multiple spellings

There are interconnections between these three sets to help facilitate the

memory links. For example, in set 1 goat is the key word for the g sound. In set

2, goat is used again for the two sounds of g: George goat. In set 3, the two

spellings of the /j/ sound are represented by George jumps. The word jumps is

also a repeat from picture 1.3, bunnies jump high. Some less frequent

sound/symbol associations (digraphs and blends) in the English language have

been omitted from MFR, because it is felt that once a student reaches a certain

level of proficiency, he can then easily learn the remaining sounds and

generalizations. Figure 3 presents sample MFR pictures.

Figure 3 - MFR Mnemonic Pictures

1.1

2.4

3.16

Developing Automatic Associations

Some students may need very directed assistance to develop automatic

sound/symbol correspondence. Focusing on the concept of the language triangle,

three different associations should be used, with each activity focusing on a

different sensory system. To facilitate this practice, the teacher should create

letter cards, which may be small index cards, such as 3x5 cards, with one letter

written per card. The letters should be written in large, clear manuscript. On

the reverse side, the key word for each sound made by the letter should be

written, as well as a reference to the appropriate MFR picture(s). For example,

the a card would have the following listing on the reverse:

apple, 1.2, 2.7

watches, 2.7, 3.14

baby, 2.7, 3.5

fall, 2.7, 3.22

Each association is performed with the packet of target sounds or letters that

have been introduced and taught. As more associations are added, the packet is

extended. Three main associations are:

Association 1: Emphasis on visual association

Association 2: Emphasis on auditory association

Association 3: Emphasis on kinesthetic association

These exercises should be practiced until students achieve a level of

automaticity, especially since automaticity is a critical aspect for the

dyslexic and dysgraphic learners (Richards 1997, Hall & Moats 1999). Even when

they reach a level of automaticity, the students need continued periodic

practice to maintain the skills at an automatic level. However, once students

begin to reach a minimal level of comfort and familiarity with a few sounds,

they need to also practice using the sounds in decoding and encoding activities.

Association 1: The Visual Association

This is an important prerequisite skill for decoding words, which is the process

of using a code system for reading. There are three components of the

association: the name, the sound, and the integration with the key word. For

each component, the child should go through the target pack of cards.

Step 1 - The Name: Child sees a letter card and says the name of the letter.

Example dialog:

Teacher: (showing m card) Tell me the name of this letter.

Student: m

Teacher: (showing t card) What is the name of this letter?

Student: t

Step 2 - The Sound: Child sees a letter card and says the sound of the letter.

Example dialog:

Teacher: (showing m card) Tell me the sound of this letter.

Student: /m/

Teacher: (showing t card) What is the sound of this letter?

Student: /t/

Step three - The Integration: Child sees a letter card and says the letter

name, key word, and sound.

Example dialog:

Teacher: (showing m card) Tell me this key word and sound.

Student: m, monkeys, /m/

Teacher: (showing j card)

Student: j, jump, /j/

Association 2: The Auditory Association

This is an important prerequisite skill to encoding, or spelling. The child

hears the sound and gives the name of the letter, or he hears the name and then

provides the sound. In this association, he does not look at the cards.

Step 1 - The Name: Child sees a letter card and says the name of the letter.

Example dialog:

Teacher: What letter has the /p/ sound?

Student: p

Teacher: What letter has the /t/ sound?

Student: t

Or,

Teacher: /m/

Student: m

Teacher: /h/

Student: h

Step 2 - The Sound: Child hears letter name and says its sound (no cards are

used)

Example dialog:

Teacher: What's the sound of p?

Student: /p/

Teacher: What's the sound of k?

Student: /k/

Or, as an alternative when the student is accustomed to the drill technique:

Teacher: m

Student: /m/

Teacher: a

Student:

Step three - The Integration: Child hears a letter name and says the letter

name, key word, and sound, using the key words to facilitate recall of the

association.

Example dialog:

Teacher: m

Student: m, monkey, /m/

Teacher: a

Student: a, apple,

Association 3: The Kinesthetic Association

This association is an important prerequisite for written spelling. During this

procedure, the student traces, copies, or writes the letter after hearing either

the letter name or the letter sound.

Step 1 - The Name: Child sees a letter card or hears the letter name and traces

or writes the letter, saying the letter name as she traces or writes the letter

to help solidify the link.

Example dialog:

Teacher: Write m.

Student: (writes the letter m, saying) /m/

Teacher: (showing t card) Write t.

Student: (writes letter t, saying) /t/.

Step 2 - The Sound: Child hears the letter sound and traces or writes the

letter, saying the letter name as he traces or writes the letter to help

solidify the link.

Teacher: Write the letter that has the /m/ sound.

Student: (writes the letter m, saying) /m/

The exercises used here are the same as for Association 1, the visual

association. The difference is that the student simultaneously writes and says

her response. The student can vary the writing practice by:

Tracing letters written large on a chalkboard (using a vertical plane)

Writing the letters in the air relying more on his own bodily-kinesthetic

modalities

Writing the letter independently on paper

A variety of activities should be used at different points within the

learning sequence. Air writing is of critical importance for dyslexic and

dysgraphic students and serves several purposes. Writing while saying the

name has multisensory impact: it connects a motor movement with vision

(seeing the letter card) and with auditory (hearing yourself say the

name). Air writing also serves to strengthen the motor memory for the form

of the letter, providing large muscle input. Students can be encouraged to

imagine the letter as they air write it, thus strengthening their imaging

skill, which will lead to greater automaticity. In addition, air writing

is an efficient group teaching technique since it allows the teacher to

monitor several students at once. When the students respond on paper, the

teacher is only able to monitor the end product, not the process, for most

of the students.When introducing air writing to the students, tell them,

"This time when you say the letter name, I want you to write the letter t

in the air. Write it big. Use two fingers as your pointer and keep your

wrist and elbow fairly straight. I want you to be able to really feel the

movements you make while you are writing the t in the air. I will write it

with you. (Teacher needs to stand facing the class and make her t

backwards so that the students may follow the movements.) Now say the key

word and sound for this letter as we write it in the air. Student(s): (air

writing t) "t, tiny, /t/." Teacher: "Can you imagine the letter in the air

where you wrote it? See it there." If students cannot image the letter

easily, use additional cues such as the following:

Pretend your fingers leave a shadow as you write your letter. See the shadow.

Pretend your fingers leave a bright red line as you write your letter. See the

line.

Pretend bright green spaghetti comes out of your finger as you write the

letter. See the spaghetti.

Pretend brightly colored Silly String® is coming out of your finger as you

write the letter. See the string. What color is yours?

Using the Mnemonics

The following suggestions provide examples for using MFR mnemonics as the means

for introducing key words. A letter is introduced, as in the following dialogue.

Teacher: Today we are going to learn about the letter m. It has the sound /m/.

Tell me some words that start with the /m/ sound.

Students: (Students say a variety of words starting with /m/ sound while teacher

writes suggestions on the board.)

Teacher: (Teacher guides students until one of them names monkey.) Yes, all of

these words are good, and one of the words is monkey. We can also talk about two

monkeys. Now, let's look at this picture. This picture says 'tiny monkeys kiss

fat pig.' Do you see the monkeys? What's the sound at the beginning of monkeys?

Students: /m/

Teacher: We are going to use the word monkeys to help us remember that the

letter m has the /m/ sound. Everybody repeat: m, monkeys, /m/.

Students: m, monkey, /m/

Teacher: Good. Now every time we think of the letter m, we can also remember

monkeys and remember m has the /m/ sound.

For students who struggle substantially, it is best to initially teach the first

five consonants (t,m,k,f,p) and one short vowel (as in a, apple, /a/). At that

point, the teacher can use letter cards or magnetic letters to create a variety

of letter combinations that the students can decode (read) or encode (spell).

For encoding, the teacher can say a sound pattern or a syllable, and the

students select the letters to spell the word, placing them in the correct

order. For the decoding (reading) activity, the teacher creates the combination

and the students read it, or one student can make a combination for the other

students.

Many activities can be developed using this concept; however, that is the

function of another article.

Creating Your Own Mnemonics

The concept of using pictured mnemonics can be utilized with a wide variety of

picture clues. It is actually quite fun to think of and create mnemonic

sentences based on key words. The critical factor is to use consistent key words

throughout the student's reading and spelling learning.

Conclusion

In helping students have greater fun with written expression, they first need

some automatic skills for the basic writing mechanics. This article was designed

to deal with one small part of that process: the process of developing automatic

sound/symbol correspondences. Since many students with learning differences have

substantial strengths in visual imagination and visual imagery, the visual

mnemonic system has been very useful. The author wishes you a great deal of fun

in adapting the use of mnemonics to your own child or students.

References

Richards, Regina G. Memory Foundations for Reading, Riverside, CA: RET Center

Press, www.retctrpress.com, 1997.

Gillingham, Anna, Stillman, Bessie. Remedial Training for Children with Specific

Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship, MA: Educator's Publishing

Service, www.epsbooks.com, 1968.

Note: Thank you to Matthew Acosta for his drawing of air writing.

About the Author:

Regina G. Richards, M.A., began her work in bilingual education, working

on curriculum development and test design. She has authored books on

language development, reading strategies, and classroom visual

development, and throughout her years of working in education, she has

presented a wide range of workshops at conferences. Since 1970, she has

been an instructor at the University of California Extension Programs at

both the Riverside and San Diego campuses. She is director of the Richards

Educational Therapy Center and Big Springs School, both of which serve

many dyslexia and dysgraphic students. She was president of her local

branch of the International Dyslexia Association for seven years and

continus to be actively involved.

Publications by Regina G. Richards

Memory Foundations for Reading

RET Center Press 1997

ISBN 096613530X

The visual mnemonic strategies introduced in Regina G. Richards' Memory

Foundations for Reading are designed to help students transform a struggle

with basic phonics into a successful learning experience. While some

children learn sound/symbol relationships quickly and easily, others need

more practice and there are some who struggle greatly. The visual mnemonic

system presented in MFR can be modifed and adapted for a variety of

learning situations.

The Writing Dilemma: Understanding Dysgraphia

RET Press 1998

ISBN 0966135318

Dysgraphia is often misunderstood by parents, teachers, and students.

While the label is not important, understanding that some students

experience problems processing and organizing information in a written

format is important. Dr. Levine states, "Clearly it is time for a holistic

approach to the understanding of writing. The Writing Dilemma offers an

embarrassingly overdue breakthrough, as this most important work

acknowledges and describes vividly the multiple possible breakdown points

that must be considered in a child who is not developing writing skills."

Other sections include components that facilitate automatic writing

performances, assessment techniques, and a variety of recommendations for

compensations and remediation of writing problems.

Clips